12 Research Methods in the Social Sciences
12.1 Introduction
Alongside a focus on quantitative research methods, this module is concerned with research methods in the social sciences. This is partly because a great deal of the data you will work with in sport data analytics is taken from human beings, often in naturalistic settings (i.e., outside a lab).
‘Social science’ and ‘natural science’ differ in focus and methodology. Social science studies human behavior and societies, using qualitative methods like interviews as well as quantitative methods.
In contrast, natural science explores the physical world, including biology and physics, relying more on experiments and quantitative analysis. While social science seeks to understand human interactions and social structures, natural science aims to uncover the laws of the natural universe.
There is clearly a degree of overlap between these two worlds in sport data analytics. Some of the data you will handle might be collected in carefully-controlled situations, such as a physiological laboratory. Other data might involve asking players their opinions about something, or seeking to understand spectator behaviour.
Understanding scientific inquiry
Regardless of discipline or field, research methods provide a systematic and structured approach to collecting and interpreting data. They ensure that our research is conducted with objectivity and allow other researchers to reproduce findings, supporting consistency and reliability in the scientific process.
At its core, scientific inquiry or any kind aims to generate universal knowledge that transcends individual experiences, giving us broader insights into the social and the physical world with their complex dynamics.
Phases of research
Research often begins with exploration, looking for new insights or unfamiliar aspects that haven’t been previously documented. This initial phase can lead to surprising findings and pave the way for further investigation.
Once an aspect of the social or physical world is identified, researchers often move to description, creating a detailed and comprehensive account of the particular phenomenon under study.
Our ultimate goal, however, is explanation, seeking to understand the underlying causes or reasons for the observed patterns, providing depth and understanding to our findings. The development of theory is critical, because this is how we explain our findings, and which provides the basis for further hypotheses that can be tested.
Importance of rigour and validity
The credibility of any research hinges on its rigour and validity.
‘Rigour’ ensures that the research process is conducted systematically, without shortcuts, following steps that are well-thought-out and precise.
‘Validity’, on the other hand, ensures that the tools, methods, and measures we use in the research genuinely represent what they are intended to measure. This is fairly simple in the ‘hard’ sciences, but in social science contexts it can be much more problematic.
Without these two elements, research findings can easily be misconstrued, leading to potentially misleading or inaccurate conclusions. Therefore, both are of paramount importance in maintaining the integrity of research in sport (and any other field).
Ethical considerations
Conducting research also requires careful attention to ethical considerations. As researchers, we have a responsibility to respect the rights, privacy, and overall well-being of our participants. Ethical standards are designed to prevent any potential harm to participants, both physically and emotionally.
A simple example of this is the standard use of the word ‘participant’, rather than ‘subject’, in contemporary social science research. It moves the power dynamic (or at least is suggestive of such a move) from scientist vs. subject to one where the individual is deemed to have agency and responsibility within the process.
Three foundational principles underpinning ethical research include:
informed consent, where participants are made fully aware of the research and its implications;
confidentiality, ensuring that personal data is not disclosed;
honesty, ensuring transparency throughout the research process.
We’ll return to the importance of ethics in research later in this module.
Reflect
How can these principles of research methods, such as rigour, validity, and ethical considerations, be applied to ensure objective and ethical research in the field of sport, especially when examining the social dynamics and impacts of sport on individuals and communities?
12.2 Types of research methods
While there is a huge variety of methods and techniques used in research, almost all can be reduced to a number of basic ‘forms’:
Experiments
Experiments play a foundational role in scientific research, particularly when the aim is to determine cause-and-effect relationships. By manipulating one variable and observing its effect on another, we can ascertain direct relationships between different phenomena.
To ensure the validity of results, control groups (unaffected by the manipulation) and randomisation (random assignment of participants) are often used. This makes experiments especially useful in determining causal relationships, a cornerstone of scientific understanding.
Surveys and questionnaires
Surveys and questionnaires are also versatile tools for collecting data. They allow researchers to gather information from a large group of people in a relatively short amount of time.
The success of a survey largely hinges on its design and sampling. Questions must be crafted with precision, avoiding biases, while sampling should aim for representativeness to ensure the data can be generalised to a larger population.
Depending on the nature of the questions, survey data can be quantitative, offering numerical insights, or qualitative, providing more descriptive and narrative responses.
Content analysis
Content analysis provides a structured method for analysing documents, media, and other forms of communication. By systematically reviewing content, researchers can identify patterns, themes, or biases. This method is objective, ensuring that interpretations are based on consistent criteria.
Through content analysis, researchers can gain deep insights into cultural norms, societal values, and the ways in which different topics are portrayed and discussed in various media.
Case studies
Case studies offer an in-depth look at specific events, people, or phenomena. By digging deep into a particular subject, researchers can gather rich contextual data that might be overlooked in broader studies.
Case studies illuminate complex issues and help in understanding nuances. However, their depth and specificity also mean that their findings may not always be generalisable to larger groups or different contexts.
Reflect
Considering the different research methods outlined above, how would you approach a study aiming to understand the impact of sport on community cohesion and individual well-being? Which method(s) would be most suitable and why?
12.3 Methodological considerations
Aligning our method within our question
The alignment of the research question with the appropriate method is crucial for the validity and reliability of results. Different questions demand different research techniques to produce meaningful answers. The choice of method should align with the focus of the inquiry.
For instance, when the goal is to investigate public opinion on a particular topic, surveys might be more suitable than experiments because they can capture a wide range of views from a diverse group of respondents.
How is data accessed, and made available?
The availability of pre-existing data can be highly useful for researchers, as it might obviate the need to collect new data. However, researchers must tread carefully, especially in terms of data privacy laws and the rights of data ownership.
Furthermore, while some data might technically exist, accessing it can be a challenge. Obstacles related to financial costs, geographical location, or even technological challenges can impede a researcher’s ability to acquire desired data.
Constraints on time and resource
While the ‘ideal’ research method is one that perfectly aligns with the research question, practical considerations often come into play. Some methods, like longitudinal studies, might be resource-heavy and time-consuming.
As researchers, we must factor in constraints like the availability of funding, equipment, and time when deciding on a method. It’s often a balance between idealism and pragmatism, seeking rigorous results within given constraints.
Reflect
If you were to conduct a study examining the long-term effects of intensive athletic training on the physical and mental well-being of athletes, what research method would you choose? How would you navigate potential ethical concerns and resource limitations in your study?
12.4 Reading
If you’re interested in good general introductions to research methods in sport and exercise research, the following are available via the University library using the module myplace link:
Smith, M. (2010). Research Methods in Sport (1st ed.). SAGE Publications.
Atkinson, M. (2011). Key Concepts in Sport and Exercise Research Methods (1st ed.). SAGE Publications.